Ancient Inscriptions Shed Light On The Worship Of The Goddesses Allat And Atargatis Among Temple Builders

Jan Bartek - AncientPages.com - In the ancient Near East, temple structures held immense religious and cultural significance. Destroying a stone block from one of these temples was considered such a grave offense that it was punishable by death, while even stealing a hammer could be seen as an act that might provoke divine retribution. These temples were intentionally designed to embody divinity and stand out within their urban environments.

Background: Nabatean Temple in Wadi Rum. Credit: Bashar Tabbah - Public Domain - Left: Goddesses Allat. Credit: Owen Cook - CC BY-SA 3.0. Right: Goddess Atargatis. Credit: Dennis G. Jarvis - CC BY-SA 2.0  - Image compilation by AncientPages.com

The sanctuaries constructed during the Roman and Parthian periods (1st century BC to 3rd century AD) continue to impress modern observers, despite many surviving only as ruins. However, much less is known about the individuals who built these remarkable places of worship.

Arab Goddess Allat And The Syrian Goddess Atargatis

Dr. Aleksandra Kubiak-Schneider of the University of Wroclaw has conducted research on the craftsmen who built these ancient temples and their relationships with deities. Supported by a grant from Poland’s National Science Centre, she created a database compiling inscriptions left by people involved in cults dedicated to the Arab goddess Allat and the Syrian goddess Atargatis. Through this work, she gathered valuable information about builders, sculptors, and decorators who contributed to temples in Hatra, Palmyra, and Nabataea.

Nabatean Temple in Wadi Rum. Credit: Bashar Tabbah - Public Domain

Dr. Kubiak-Schneider details her findings in a chapter of "Serving the Gods: Artists, Craftsmen, Ritual Specialists in the Ancient World." She reports having collected approximately 120 inscriptions related to work for these two goddesses across various sites in the ancient world, offering new insights into both temple construction practices and the individuals who served within them.

Hatra, located in northern Mesopotamia, served as a significant religious center, featuring a complex of temples at its core. The city was notably under the patronage of Shamash, the sun god. Tadmor—better known as Palmyra—was situated in the largest oasis of the Syrian Desert. During the Roman era, Palmyra became renowned for its grand temples, including those dedicated to Bel, Baalshamin, Nabu, and Allat.

The central temple complex, known as the Great Temenos, lies within the ruins of the ancient city of Hatra, the City of the Sun god. Hatra is located approximately 300 kilometers northwest of Baghdad, Iraq, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the region known as Al Jazirah. Credit: Multi-National Corps Iraq Public Affairs - Public Domain

In southern Jordan lies Wadi Rum desert, an important stop along ancient trade routes leading to the Red Sea and beyond. This region included notable religious sites such as a temple dedicated to Allat and an open sanctuary at Ain esh-Shallalah spring.

"Temples were not only intended to be functional, allowing for worship, but also to stand out from the urban landscape. The construction and design of the temple itself were extremely important and subject to various restrictions," Dr. Aleksandra Kubiak-Schneider explained to Science in Poland.

Damaging A Small Piece Was Punishable By Death

Both builders and regular worshippers were required to be extremely careful and alert when entering these sacred structures. In Hatra’s most important temple precinct, damaging or removing even a small piece of stone was considered a grave offense, punishable by death. Interestingly, ordinary citizens were permitted to write inscriptions on the walls, provided they did not contain blasphemous content. Such commemorative inscriptions are frequently found and often honor specific individuals.

Every item within the temple was regarded as valuable and carefully protected—even tools used by craftsmen, which were sometimes stored in rooms resembling treasuries. The theft of items like hammers, axes, or chisels also carried the death penalty. According to researchers, this punishment was particularly severe because it was believed to be administered by a deity; consequences could include drowning or burning.

Temples were constructed with the intention of lasting forever and thus demanded exceptional craftsmanship and skill. Working on such projects was both profitable and highly respected, requiring extensive knowledge and experience. The entire building process was supervised by an individual who served as the master builder.

Construction Mastermind

“This was the ‘construction mastermind.’ These were skilled individuals who knew the latest trends and could follow them to create something monumental for the glory of the deities. They were responsible, for example, for the temple’s visual program, including the layout and appearance of the bas-reliefs,” said Dr. Kubiak-Schneider.

Strict Supervision

The researcher elaborated that, despite the significant responsibilities held by ancient builders, their actions were tightly regulated. Every aspect of construction was overseen by specialists in the field to ensure compliance with established norms and religious sensitivities—for instance, creating a bas-relief without proper guidance could inadvertently offend a deity. In Wadi Rum, evidence shows that builders operated under the authority of the king. At Hatra, temple construction was commissioned by high-ranking temple officials and likely rulers themselves. In Palmyra, priests served as commissioners for worship-related building projects and played a central role in societal decision-making alongside priestly families.

Stele signed by a sculptor named Ihabshai next to an eagle. Photo from the Baghdad Archaeological Museum. Credit: Bernhard Schneider

Builders often belonged to multi-generational family workshops. Some specialized as artists responsible for crafting columns, sculptures, bas-reliefs, and capitals. Skills were passed down from fathers to sons; inscriptions from Hatra indicate that young sculptors could eventually become master builders—a transition associated with higher pay and greater respect due to the advanced skills required.

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Overall, these communities were highly hierarchical. While some craftsmen performed skilled artistic work or managed construction projects, others undertook more basic tasks, such as laying bricks or preparing mortar. According to Dr. Aleksandra Kubiak-Schneider, most builders worked within guilds; one inscription from Hatra mentions a guild comprising ten craftsmen, though the exact size of these groups remains uncertain.

Source: Nauka w Polsce (Science in Poland)

Written by Jan Bartek - AncientPages.com Staff Writer